Study of flow effects on temperature-controlled radiofrequency ablation using phantom experiments and forward simulations

Purpose. Blood flow is known to add variability to hepatic radiofrequency ablation (RFA) treatment outcomes. However, few studies exist on its impact on temperature-controlled RFA. Hence, we investigate large-scale blood flow effects on temperature-controlled RFA in flow channel experiments and numerical simulations. Methods. Ablation zones were induced in tissue-mimicking, thermochromic phantoms with a single flow channel, using an RF generator with temperature-controlled power delivery and a monopolar needle electrode. Channels were generated by molding the phantom around a removable rod. Channel radius and saline flow rate were varied to study the impact of flow on (i) the ablated cross-sectional area, (ii) the delivered generator power, and (iii) the occurrence of directional effects on the thermal lesion. Finite volume simulations reproducing the experimental geometry, flow conditions, and generator power input were conducted and compared to the experimental ablation outcomes. Results. Vessels of different channel radii urn:x-wiley:00942405:media:mp15138:mp15138-math-0001 affected the ablation outcome in different ways. For urn:x-wiley:00942405:media:mp15138:mp15138-math-0002 mm, the ablated area decreased with increasing flow rate while the energy input was hardly affected. For urn:x-wiley:00942405:media:mp15138:mp15138-math-0003 mm and urn:x-wiley:00942405:media:mp15138:mp15138-math-0004 mm, the energy input increased toward larger flow rates; for these radii, the ablated area decreased and increased toward larger flow rates, respectively, while still being reduced overall as compared to the reference experiment without flow. Directional effects, that is, local shrinking of the lesion upstream of the needle and an extension thereof downstream, were observed only for the smallest radius. The simulations qualitatively confirmed these observations. As compared to performing the simulations without flow, including flow effects in the simulations reduced the mean absolute error between experimental and simulated ablated areas from 0.23 to 0.12. Conclusion. While the temperature control mechanism did not detect the heat sink effect in the case of the smallest channel radius, it counteracted the heat sink effect in the case of the larger channel radii with an increased energy input; this explains the increase in ablated area toward high flow rates. The experiments in a simple phantom setup, thus, contribute to a good understanding of the phenomenon and are suitable for model validation.