Failure localization with active and passive voltage contrast in FIB and SEM

The common Passive Voltage Contrast localization method in Focused Ion Beams and Scanning Electron Microscopes can be used for failure localization issues. These methods became widely accepted in the semiconductor failure analysis community. Nearly all labs make use of it. The Active Voltage Contrast method works with additional external voltages applied inside the chamber to certain structures at the sample surface and offers even more localization possibilities. A comprehensive overview over all phenomena related to Voltage Contrast generation is given and the multiple advantages, possibilities and limits of VC failure localization are systemized and discussed.