Future vehicle energy supply - sustainable design and operation of hybrid hydrogen and electric microgrids

To decarbonise road transport, EU policymakers promote battery electric vehicle and fuel cell electric vehicle adaption and advocate the expansion of charging and hydrogen refuelling infrastructure in the Fit-for-55 package. However, infrastructure operators face cost-intensive operations and insufficient low greenhouse gas (GHG) hydrogen availability. Grid-connected hybrid hydrogen refuelling and electric vehicle charging microgrids with on-site hydrogen production, battery and hydrogen energy storages and renewable energy can help to solve these challenges. We investigate the influence of various microgrid design and operation strategies regarding their contribution to profitability and decarbonisation in an optimisation study. Our findings in a real-world case study within Germany indicate that the cost-effectiveness of designing and operating such microgrids does not contribute to the decarbonisation of road transportation under common operation strategies and current demand charge regulations. We advocate revising German demand charge regulations to support sustainable design and operation of future charging and hydrogen refuelling microgrids.